[PATCH 0/3] workqueue: replace wq users and add WQ_PERCPU to alloc_workqueue() users

[PATCH 0/3] workqueue: replace wq users and add WQ_PERCPU to alloc_workqueue() users

[Marco Crivellari]

Hi!

Below is a summary of a discussion about the Workqueue API and cpu isolation
considerations. Details and more information are available here:

        "workqueue: Always use wq_select_unbound_cpu() for WORK_CPU_UNBOUND."
        https://lore.kernel.org/all/20250221112003.1dSuoGyc@linutronix.de/

=== Current situation: problems ===

Let's consider a nohz_full system with isolated CPUs: wq_unbound_cpumask is
set to the housekeeping CPUs, for !WQ_UNBOUND the local CPU is selected.

This leads to different scenarios if a work item is scheduled on an isolated
CPU where "delay" value is 0 or greater then 0:
        schedule_delayed_work(, 0);

This will be handled by __queue_work() that will queue the work item on the
current local (isolated) CPU, while:

        schedule_delayed_work(, 1);

Will move the timer on an housekeeping CPU, and schedule the work there.

Currently if a user enqueue a work item using schedule_delayed_work() the
used wq is "system_wq" (per-cpu wq) while queue_delayed_work() use
WORK_CPU_UNBOUND (used when a cpu is not specified). The same applies to
schedule_work() that is using system_wq and queue_work(), that makes use
again of WORK_CPU_UNBOUND.

This lack of consistentcy cannot be addressed without refactoring the API.

=== Plan and future plans ===

This patchset is the first stone on a refactoring needed in order to
address the points aforementioned; it will have a positive impact also
on the cpu isolation, in the long term, moving away percpu workqueue in
favor to an unbound model.

These are the main steps:
1)  API refactoring (that this patch is introducing)
    -   Make more clear and uniform the system wq names, both per-cpu and
        unbound. This to avoid any possible confusion on what should be
        used.

    -   Introduction of WQ_PERCPU: this flag is the complement of WQ_UNBOUND,
        introduced in this patchset and used on all the callers that are not
        currently using WQ_UNBOUND.

        WQ_UNBOUND will be removed in a future release cycle.

        Most users don't need to be per-cpu, because they don't have
        locality requirements, because of that, a next future step will be
        make "unbound" the default behavior.

2)  Check who really needs to be per-cpu
    -   Remove the WQ_PERCPU flag when is not strictly required.

3)  Add a new API (prefer local cpu)
    -   There are users that don't require a local execution, like mentioned
        above; despite that, local execution yeld to performance gain.

        This new API will prefer the local execution, without requiring it.

=== Introduced Changes by this series ===

1) [P 1-2] Replace use of system_wq and system_unbound_wq

        system_wq is a per-CPU workqueue, but his name is not clear.
        system_unbound_wq is to be used when locality is not required.

        Because of that, system_wq has been renamed in system_percpu_wq, and
        system_unbound_wq has been renamed in system_dfl_wq.

2) [P 3] add WQ_PERCPU to remaining alloc_workqueue() users

        Every alloc_workqueue() caller should use one among WQ_PERCPU or
        WQ_UNBOUND. This is actually enforced warning if both or none of them
        are present at the same time.

        WQ_UNBOUND will be removed in a next release cycle.

=== For Maintainers ===

There are prerequisites for this series, already merged in the master branch.
The commits are:

128ea9f6ccfb6960293ae4212f4f97165e42222d ("workqueue: Add system_percpu_wq and
system_dfl_wq")

930c2ea566aff59e962c50b2421d5fcc3b98b8be ("workqueue: Add new WQ_PERCPU flag")


Thanks!

Marco Crivellari (3):
  workqueue: replace use of system_unbound_wq with system_dfl_wq
  workqueue: replace use of system_wq with system_percpu_wq
  workqueue: WQ_PERCPU added to alloc_workqueue users

 include/linux/workqueue.h | 30 +++++++++++++++---------------
 kernel/workqueue.c        | 23 ++++++++++++-----------
 2 files changed, 27 insertions(+), 26 deletions(-)

-- 
2.51.0

[PATCH 1/3] workqueue: replace use of system_unbound_wq with system_dfl_wq

[Marco Crivellari]

Currently if a user enqueue a work item using schedule_delayed_work() the
used wq is "system_wq" (per-cpu wq) while queue_delayed_work() use
WORK_CPU_UNBOUND (used when a cpu is not specified). The same applies to
schedule_work() that is using system_wq and queue_work(), that makes use
again of WORK_CPU_UNBOUND.

This lack of consistentcy cannot be addressed without refactoring the API.

system_unbound_wq should be the default workqueue so as not to enforce
locality constraints for random work whenever it's not required.

Adding system_dfl_wq to encourage its use when unbound work should be used.

queue_work() / queue_delayed_work() / mod_delayed_work() will now use the
new unbound wq: whether the user still use the old wq a warn will be
printed along with a wq redirect to the new one.

The old system_unbound_wq will be kept for a few release cycles.

Suggested-by: Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: Marco Crivellari <marco.crivellari@suse.com>
---
 include/linux/workqueue.h | 4 ++--
 kernel/workqueue.c        | 2 +-
 2 files changed, 3 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/include/linux/workqueue.h b/include/linux/workqueue.h
index f19072605faa..0e14d78fb970 100644
--- a/include/linux/workqueue.h
+++ b/include/linux/workqueue.h
@@ -779,8 +779,8 @@ extern void __warn_flushing_systemwide_wq(void)
 	     _wq == system_highpri_wq) ||				\
 	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_long_wq) &&		\
 	     _wq == system_long_wq) ||					\
-	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_unbound_wq) &&		\
-	     _wq == system_unbound_wq) ||				\
+	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_dfl_wq) &&		\
+	     _wq == system_dfl_wq) ||				\
 	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_freezable_wq) &&	\
 	     _wq == system_freezable_wq) ||				\
 	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_power_efficient_wq) &&	\
diff --git a/kernel/workqueue.c b/kernel/workqueue.c
index 62f020050de1..687285701655 100644
--- a/kernel/workqueue.c
+++ b/kernel/workqueue.c
@@ -2936,7 +2936,7 @@ static void idle_worker_timeout(struct timer_list *t)
 	raw_spin_unlock_irq(&pool->lock);
 
 	if (do_cull)
-		queue_work(system_unbound_wq, &pool->idle_cull_work);
+		queue_work(system_dfl_wq, &pool->idle_cull_work);
 }
 
 /**
-- 
2.51.0

[PATCH 2/3] workqueue: replace use of system_wq with system_percpu_wq

[Marco Crivellari]

Currently if a user enqueue a work item using schedule_delayed_work() the
used wq is "system_wq" (per-cpu wq) while queue_delayed_work() use
WORK_CPU_UNBOUND (used when a cpu is not specified). The same applies to
schedule_work() that is using system_wq and queue_work(), that makes use
again of WORK_CPU_UNBOUND.

This lack of consistentcy cannot be addressed without refactoring the API.

system_wq is a per-CPU worqueue, yet nothing in its name tells about that
CPU affinity constraint, which is very often not required by users. Make
it clear by adding a system_percpu_wq.

queue_work() / queue_delayed_work() mod_delayed_work() will now use the
new per-cpu wq: whether the user still stick on the old name a warn will
be printed along a wq redirect to the new one.

This patch add the new system_percpu_wq except for mm, fs and net
subsystem, whom are handled in separated patches.

The old wq will be kept for a few release cylces.

Suggested-by: Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: Marco Crivellari <marco.crivellari@suse.com>
---
 include/linux/workqueue.h | 22 +++++++++++-----------
 kernel/workqueue.c        |  2 +-
 2 files changed, 12 insertions(+), 12 deletions(-)

diff --git a/include/linux/workqueue.h b/include/linux/workqueue.h
index 0e14d78fb970..542529d3b41b 100644
--- a/include/linux/workqueue.h
+++ b/include/linux/workqueue.h
@@ -433,10 +433,10 @@ enum wq_consts {
  * short queue flush time.  Don't queue works which can run for too
  * long.
  *
- * system_highpri_wq is similar to system_wq but for work items which
+ * system_highpri_wq is similar to system_percpu_wq but for work items which
  * require WQ_HIGHPRI.
  *
- * system_long_wq is similar to system_wq but may host long running
+ * system_long_wq is similar to system_percpu_wq but may host long running
  * works.  Queue flushing might take relatively long.
  *
  * system_dfl_wq is unbound workqueue.  Workers are not bound to
@@ -444,13 +444,13 @@ enum wq_consts {
  * executed immediately as long as max_active limit is not reached and
  * resources are available.
  *
- * system_freezable_wq is equivalent to system_wq except that it's
+ * system_freezable_wq is equivalent to system_percpu_wq except that it's
  * freezable.
  *
  * *_power_efficient_wq are inclined towards saving power and converted
  * into WQ_UNBOUND variants if 'wq_power_efficient' is enabled; otherwise,
  * they are same as their non-power-efficient counterparts - e.g.
- * system_power_efficient_wq is identical to system_wq if
+ * system_power_efficient_wq is identical to system_percpu_wq if
  * 'wq_power_efficient' is disabled.  See WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT for more info.
  *
  * system_bh[_highpri]_wq are convenience interface to softirq. BH work items
@@ -704,7 +704,7 @@ static inline bool mod_delayed_work(struct workqueue_struct *wq,
  */
 static inline bool schedule_work_on(int cpu, struct work_struct *work)
 {
-	return queue_work_on(cpu, system_wq, work);
+	return queue_work_on(cpu, system_percpu_wq, work);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -723,7 +723,7 @@ static inline bool schedule_work_on(int cpu, struct work_struct *work)
  */
 static inline bool schedule_work(struct work_struct *work)
 {
-	return queue_work(system_wq, work);
+	return queue_work(system_percpu_wq, work);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -766,15 +766,15 @@ extern void __warn_flushing_systemwide_wq(void)
 #define flush_scheduled_work()						\
 ({									\
 	__warn_flushing_systemwide_wq();				\
-	__flush_workqueue(system_wq);					\
+	__flush_workqueue(system_percpu_wq);					\
 })
 
 #define flush_workqueue(wq)						\
 ({									\
 	struct workqueue_struct *_wq = (wq);				\
 									\
-	if ((__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_wq) &&			\
-	     _wq == system_wq) ||					\
+	if ((__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_percpu_wq) &&			\
+	     _wq == system_percpu_wq) ||					\
 	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_highpri_wq) &&		\
 	     _wq == system_highpri_wq) ||				\
 	    (__builtin_constant_p(_wq == system_long_wq) &&		\
@@ -803,7 +803,7 @@ extern void __warn_flushing_systemwide_wq(void)
 static inline bool schedule_delayed_work_on(int cpu, struct delayed_work *dwork,
 					    unsigned long delay)
 {
-	return queue_delayed_work_on(cpu, system_wq, dwork, delay);
+	return queue_delayed_work_on(cpu, system_percpu_wq, dwork, delay);
 }
 
 /**
@@ -817,7 +817,7 @@ static inline bool schedule_delayed_work_on(int cpu, struct delayed_work *dwork,
 static inline bool schedule_delayed_work(struct delayed_work *dwork,
 					 unsigned long delay)
 {
-	return queue_delayed_work(system_wq, dwork, delay);
+	return queue_delayed_work(system_percpu_wq, dwork, delay);
 }
 
 #ifndef CONFIG_SMP
diff --git a/kernel/workqueue.c b/kernel/workqueue.c
index 687285701655..89839eebb359 100644
--- a/kernel/workqueue.c
+++ b/kernel/workqueue.c
@@ -7660,7 +7660,7 @@ static int wq_watchdog_param_set_thresh(const char *val,
 	if (ret)
 		return ret;
 
-	if (system_wq)
+	if (system_percpu_wq)
 		wq_watchdog_set_thresh(thresh);
 	else
 		wq_watchdog_thresh = thresh;
-- 
2.51.0

Re: [PATCH 2/3] workqueue: replace use of system_wq with system_percpu_wq

[Tejun Heo]

On Fri, Sep 05, 2025 at 11:13:24AM +0200, Marco Crivellari wrote:
> Currently if a user enqueue a work item using schedule_delayed_work() the
> used wq is "system_wq" (per-cpu wq) while queue_delayed_work() use
> WORK_CPU_UNBOUND (used when a cpu is not specified). The same applies to
> schedule_work() that is using system_wq and queue_work(), that makes use
> again of WORK_CPU_UNBOUND.
> 
> This lack of consistentcy cannot be addressed without refactoring the API.
> 
> system_wq is a per-CPU worqueue, yet nothing in its name tells about that
> CPU affinity constraint, which is very often not required by users. Make
> it clear by adding a system_percpu_wq.
> 
> queue_work() / queue_delayed_work() mod_delayed_work() will now use the
> new per-cpu wq: whether the user still stick on the old name a warn will
> be printed along a wq redirect to the new one.
> 
> This patch add the new system_percpu_wq except for mm, fs and net
> subsystem, whom are handled in separated patches.
> 
> The old wq will be kept for a few release cylces.
> 
> Suggested-by: Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org>
> Signed-off-by: Marco Crivellari <marco.crivellari@suse.com>

Applied 1-2 to wq/for-6.18.

Thanks.

-- 
tejun

Re: [PATCH 2/3] workqueue: replace use of system_wq with system_percpu_wq

[Marco Crivellari]

On Fri, Sep 5, 2025 at 7:24 PM Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org> wrote:
> Applied 1-2 to wq/for-6.18.

Many thanks, Tejun!

-- 

Marco Crivellari

L3 Support Engineer, Technology & Product

marco.crivellari@suse.com

[PATCH 3/3] workqueue: WQ_PERCPU added to alloc_workqueue users

[Marco Crivellari]

Currently if a user enqueue a work item using schedule_delayed_work() the
used wq is "system_wq" (per-cpu wq) while queue_delayed_work() use
WORK_CPU_UNBOUND (used when a cpu is not specified). The same applies to
schedule_work() that is using system_wq and queue_work(), that makes use
again of WORK_CPU_UNBOUND.
This lack of consistentcy cannot be addressed without refactoring the API.

alloc_workqueue() treats all queues as per-CPU by default, while unbound
workqueues must opt-in via WQ_UNBOUND.

This default is suboptimal: most workloads benefit from unbound queues,
allowing the scheduler to place worker threads where they’re needed and
reducing noise when CPUs are isolated.

This default is suboptimal: most workloads benefit from unbound queues,
allowing the scheduler to place worker threads where they’re needed and
reducing noise when CPUs are isolated.

This patch adds a new WQ_PERCPU flag to explicitly request the use of
the per-CPU behavior. Both flags coexist for one release cycle to allow
callers to transition their calls.

Once migration is complete, WQ_UNBOUND can be removed and unbound will
become the implicit default.

With the introduction of the WQ_PERCPU flag (equivalent to !WQ_UNBOUND),
any alloc_workqueue() caller that doesn’t explicitly specify WQ_UNBOUND
must now use WQ_PERCPU.

All existing users have been updated accordingly.

Suggested-by: Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org>
Signed-off-by: Marco Crivellari <marco.crivellari@suse.com>
---
 include/linux/workqueue.h |  4 ++--
 kernel/workqueue.c        | 19 ++++++++++---------
 2 files changed, 12 insertions(+), 11 deletions(-)

diff --git a/include/linux/workqueue.h b/include/linux/workqueue.h
index 542529d3b41b..4db59f886656 100644
--- a/include/linux/workqueue.h
+++ b/include/linux/workqueue.h
@@ -409,7 +409,7 @@ enum wq_flags {
 	__WQ_LEGACY		= 1 << 18, /* internal: create*_workqueue() */
 
 	/* BH wq only allows the following flags */
-	__WQ_BH_ALLOWS		= WQ_BH | WQ_HIGHPRI,
+	__WQ_BH_ALLOWS		= WQ_BH | WQ_HIGHPRI | WQ_PERCPU,
 };
 
 enum wq_consts {
@@ -568,7 +568,7 @@ alloc_workqueue_lockdep_map(const char *fmt, unsigned int flags, int max_active,
 	alloc_workqueue(fmt, WQ_UNBOUND | __WQ_ORDERED | (flags), 1, ##args)
 
 #define create_workqueue(name)						\
-	alloc_workqueue("%s", __WQ_LEGACY | WQ_MEM_RECLAIM, 1, (name))
+	alloc_workqueue("%s", __WQ_LEGACY | WQ_MEM_RECLAIM | WQ_PERCPU, 1, (name))
 #define create_freezable_workqueue(name)				\
 	alloc_workqueue("%s", __WQ_LEGACY | WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_UNBOUND |	\
 			WQ_MEM_RECLAIM, 1, (name))
diff --git a/kernel/workqueue.c b/kernel/workqueue.c
index 89839eebb359..d33ca6acc5a5 100644
--- a/kernel/workqueue.c
+++ b/kernel/workqueue.c
@@ -7819,22 +7819,23 @@ void __init workqueue_init_early(void)
 		ordered_wq_attrs[i] = attrs;
 	}
 
-	system_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", 0, 0);
-	system_percpu_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", 0, 0);
-	system_highpri_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_highpri", WQ_HIGHPRI, 0);
-	system_long_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_long", 0, 0);
+	system_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", WQ_PERCPU, 0);
+	system_percpu_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", WQ_PERCPU, 0);
+	system_highpri_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_highpri",
+					    WQ_HIGHPRI | WQ_PERCPU, 0);
+	system_long_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_long", WQ_PERCPU, 0);
 	system_unbound_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_unbound", WQ_UNBOUND, WQ_MAX_ACTIVE);
 	system_dfl_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_unbound", WQ_UNBOUND, WQ_MAX_ACTIVE);
 	system_freezable_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_freezable",
-					      WQ_FREEZABLE, 0);
+					      WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_PERCPU, 0);
 	system_power_efficient_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_power_efficient",
 					      WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT, 0);
 	system_freezable_power_efficient_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_freezable_pwr_efficient",
-					      WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT,
-					      0);
-	system_bh_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_bh", WQ_BH, 0);
+					      WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT, 0);
+	system_bh_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_bh", WQ_BH | WQ_PERCPU, 0);
 	system_bh_highpri_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_bh_highpri",
-					       WQ_BH | WQ_HIGHPRI, 0);
+					WQ_BH | WQ_HIGHPRI | WQ_PERCPU, 0);
+
 	BUG_ON(!system_wq || !system_percpu_wq || !system_highpri_wq || !system_long_wq ||
 	       !system_unbound_wq || !system_dfl_wq || !system_freezable_wq ||
 	       !system_power_efficient_wq ||
-- 
2.51.0

Re: [PATCH 3/3] workqueue: WQ_PERCPU added to alloc_workqueue users

[Tejun Heo]

Hello,

The patch doesn't apply to wq/for-6.18 and...

> diff --git a/kernel/workqueue.c b/kernel/workqueue.c
> index 89839eebb359..d33ca6acc5a5 100644
> --- a/kernel/workqueue.c
> +++ b/kernel/workqueue.c
> @@ -7819,22 +7819,23 @@ void __init workqueue_init_early(void)
>  		ordered_wq_attrs[i] = attrs;
>  	}
>  
> -	system_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", 0, 0);
> -	system_percpu_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", 0, 0);
> -	system_highpri_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_highpri", WQ_HIGHPRI, 0);
> -	system_long_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_long", 0, 0);
> +	system_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", WQ_PERCPU, 0);
> +	system_percpu_wq = alloc_workqueue("events", WQ_PERCPU, 0);
> +	system_highpri_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_highpri",
> +					    WQ_HIGHPRI | WQ_PERCPU, 0);
> +	system_long_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_long", WQ_PERCPU, 0);
>  	system_unbound_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_unbound", WQ_UNBOUND, WQ_MAX_ACTIVE);
>  	system_dfl_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_unbound", WQ_UNBOUND, WQ_MAX_ACTIVE);
>  	system_freezable_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_freezable",
> -					      WQ_FREEZABLE, 0);
> +					      WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_PERCPU, 0);
>  	system_power_efficient_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_power_efficient",
>  					      WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT, 0);
>  	system_freezable_power_efficient_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_freezable_pwr_efficient",
> -					      WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT,
> -					      0);
> -	system_bh_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_bh", WQ_BH, 0);
> +					      WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT, 0);

Isn't this missing WQ_PERCPU for system_freezable_power_efficient_wq?

Thanks.

-- 
tejun

Re: [PATCH 3/3] workqueue: WQ_PERCPU added to alloc_workqueue users

[Marco Crivellari]

On Fri, Sep 5, 2025 at 7:25 PM Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org> wrote:
>
> Hello,
>
> The patch doesn't apply to wq/for-6.18 and...

Hello Tejun,

I will rebase the work.

> >       system_freezable_power_efficient_wq = alloc_workqueue("events_freezable_pwr_efficient",
> > -                                           WQ_FREEZABLE | WQ_POWER_EFFICIENT,
> > -                                           0);
>
> Isn't this missing WQ_PERCPU for system_freezable_power_efficient_wq?

Yes, you're right. Sorry for that.

I will send the v2.

Thanks a lot!

--

Marco Crivellari

L3 Support Engineer, Technology & Product

marco.crivellari@suse.com

Re: [PATCH 3/3] workqueue: WQ_PERCPU added to alloc_workqueue users

[Marco Crivellari]

On Fri, Sep 5, 2025 at 7:25 PM Tejun Heo <tj@kernel.org> wrote:
> Isn't this missing WQ_PERCPU for system_freezable_power_efficient_wq?

I guess the flag is also missing for system_power_efficient_wq,
because by default
it should be per-cpu, unless there is  wq_power_efficient=true.

-- 

Marco Crivellari

L3 Support Engineer, Technology & Product

marco.crivellari@suse.com